Iran-Contra Affair

            For my fourth quarter blog project I have chosen to report on the Iran-Contra Affair that plagued the Reagan Administration in it's later years. In a nutshell the Iran-Contra Affair was a covert arms deal between the United States, Israel, Iran, and Nicaraguan “freedom fighters”, the Contras. The United States, through Israel, was dealing arms to Iran, who was subsequently dealing arms to the Contras in Nicaragua who were fighting against a “Communist” Sandinista regime. Israel would give Iran the weapons and the United States would reimburse the Israelis. Another theory was that the United States was giving Iran the weapons in exchange for hostages which is an unprecedented and frowned-upon action. Throughout the ordeal Reagan insisted he was unaware of the deals that were going on with the entire chain of arms dealing.

             As mentioned this ordeal took place under the Reagan administration. Prior to the illegal actions the Congress had passed a statement that made them illegal. Congress stated that it was forbidden to deal with the Contras of Nicaragua. Congress' statement did little to sway the actions of those who were adamant about aiding the so called “freedom fighters”. They had to try and aid them in a very roundabout way that would not have them discovered to be helping them despite Congress' actions. The whole ordeal brought a negative light upon the Reagan administration. The American people thought badly of the affair because at first it seemed as though the president was authorizing arms trade to a violent, unstable Iran. Yet alone, that the president was going against the orders of Congress who, in essence, symbolizes the American people in the federal government.

            One of the most memorable parts of the entire affair would have to be council hearings regarding the key players in the affair. When facts about the entire affair surfaced a council of Congressman was assembled in order to review the ordeal and to reach a verdict regarding the people involved and also to discover who was involved. The hearings were streamed to the public through the C-SPAN network so that the people could watch the case and know its outcome.

            One of the most recognizable of all the key players is Lt. Col. Oliver North. North was a key player in the arms for hostages actions between the United States and the Iranians. North's testimony in the council hearings was one of the most pivotal parts. North's testimony and questioning lasted for the duration of a week. North is accused of shredding pertinent papers regarding the affair and also for engaging in illegal actions with other nations. During and after the trials the public had varying views on Oliver North. Some people saw North as nothing more than a traitor for supplying the Iranians with weapons, whereas some saw North as a national hero for going against orders to try and help a cause that he felt worthy of aid, the Contras. In the end North was indicted. Lt. Col. North now works for Fox News.

            Another recognizable figure in the hearings is Fawn Hall. Hall was North's secretary who got dragged into the affair for her position. She was accused of shredding papers that were pertinent to the Iran-Contra affair. Hall testified a month before North gave his bit. Hall was not charged of illegally destroying National Security Council documents or obstructing justice, she was given immunity. It would later become known that Hall did assist in the destroying of documents and even in helping North sneak documents out of his office in order to properly discard of them. These actions, had they become apparent to the council would definitely have sunken here case in the form of innocence.

             Another of the key players in the affair was member of the review council, Daniel Inouye. Inouye was a Democratic Senator from Hawaii. Inouye was appointed to the position by Senate Majority Leader Robert Byrd. Inouye had been a member of the review council that presided over the Watergate Scandal during Nixon's presidency. Inouye was known as a self-effacing man and many thought that he would be over shadowed by the other council members. Contrary to such beliefs Inouye became very active during North's testimony. Inouye also delivered the councils closing statement to North. He famously references the Nuremberg Trials during his closing statement which sets North's lawyer to arguing stating that it was a personal attack. Inouye delivered the verdict of North being guilty of illegal actions and destroying NSC (National Security Council) documents.

             In the end, the council found North guilty, Hall received immunity and Reagan was also found guilty of authorizing the actions of North. To this day no one knows exactly what all took place, how many weapons were traded, how much of the stuff made its way to Nicaragua, or who all was involved. This is mostly due to many of the documentation of the events being destroyed. But despite this it is well known that the Iran-Contra Affair was definitely not a bright spot in the Reagan administration.

Fawn Hall

Oliver North

Key Figures

Ronald Reagan

Warren Rudman and Daniel Inouye

Sources:

Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On

Iran-Contra and Arms-for-Hostages Scandals

Walsh Iran-Contra Report

Understanding the Iran-Contra Affairs

The Iran-Contra Affair: The Declassified History

The Iran Contra Affair (Jewish Virtual Library)

The 369th Regiment "Harlem Hellfighters"

               During WWI there was a National Guard regiment out of Harlem, New York City, New York.  The regiment consisted of all black enlistees and only a few white officers.  This regiment, also known as the Harlem Hellfighters, led the way in racial integration by showing their love and concern for their country.  The regiment is remembered today through memories of the regimental band, and their fight against both the Germans and racial prejudice.

               The 369th regimental band is recognized for spreading jazz era music to Europe.  Coincidentally the directer of the band was James Reese Europe.  He served in the regiment as a lieutenant of the 369th.  The band played most of their performances for either British, French, and American military audiences or for civilians of France who became entranced with the band's music.   The band did most of their performances during February and March of 1918 when they were not seeing as much of the front line combat.  The bands first concert included a line-up of French March, Stars and Stripes Forever, and other of their syncopated numbers.  With all of their syncopated numbers the band supposedly started "ragtimitis" in France.  The band also passed a major milestone while in France by recording some of their songs with the Pathe brothers.  The Pathe brothers were a French recording company.  But while they were in Europe the bands music began to fall behind the advances in music that were being made back in the States.  Years after returning to the States, James Europe was stabbed in the neck by one of the band members he was having a quarrel with.  At the time of his death Europe was the best known African American band leader in the US.  The band that brought him up to fame was subsequently his downfall.

               The 369th Harlem Hellfighters did see action while in Europe but most of their action happened while fighting under a French flag as reinforcements to the French army which lost significant numbers during WWI.  Some notable members of the regiment included: Lt. James Reese Europe, Lt. George Robb, Sgts. Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts, and Congressman Hamilton Fish.  Lt. Europe was, as described in the previous paragraph, the leader of the regimental band while he was also a Lieutenant in combat.  Lt. George Robb was the only soldier to receive the Purple Heart and the Medal of Honor while he was still overseas.  Many other members of the 369th received these medals but were awarded them once they returned home.  Sgts. Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts are significant figures because they were both awarded the French Croix de Guerre while in combat.  Johnson is also noticed for his bout with numerous German soldiers while he defended a wounded brother-in-arms with only a knife!  Congressman Hamilton Fish is also very significant in that he was one of the only white officers in the 369th.  He served as a captain in the primarily black regiment and he was awarded the Silver Star and the Croix de Guerre.  I have mentioned the Croix de Guerre multiple times and feel I should explain it.  It is a medal awarded by the French government to recognize "acts of bravery in the face of the enemy" that are specifically mentioned in dispatches from the front lines.  The medal is open to any soldier, sailor, or airman of all ranks or of any Allied unit or army.  The level of command by which the level is awarded will change the appearance of the ribbon by variance in the appurtenance.  The Croix de Guerre was awarded to all members of the 369th Hellfighters Regiment for their victories while fighting under the French flag.

               While the Hellfighters were fighting the Germans they still had to fight racial prejudice in their encampments both overseas and on US soil.  The Hellfighters had been stationed in a base in North Carolina to await departure for Europe to see combat.  While their the whole regiment was mocked and criticized during their stay and the white soldiers would always try and pick fights with the Hellfighters.  Hamilton Fish, the Hellfighters white captain, didn't like to see this type of treatment for his men.  So Fish took a black soldier of the 369th with him and they marched down to the white units encampment at the base.  He walked in and said that if anyone wanted to fight the duo they should step up and take their chances.  The man fish brought with him was 6'5" and 240 pounds of pure muscle!  No wonder no one wanted to fight them!  The Regiment faced this kind of prejudice before their tour in France but upon their return home the mood was completely different towards the primarily black regiment out of Harlem.  When they returned the nation had already heard of their outstanding valor and accomplishments while fighting the Germans.  And the city of New York in honor of the 369th and the parade route marched them right down 5th of the grandest city in America!  It just goes to show that Americans just needed to see that black people also loved their country and were willing to make the ultimate sacrifice for the country they love.  

               The Hellfighters, while primarily black, proved their worth to America by fighting through racial prejudice and Germans.   While simultaneously spreading American culture through Europe with their jazz band.  In the end the Hellfighters turned out to be a great representation of American awesomeness!

Sources for USH WWI Era Blog Post

Academics
The New York Sun
I used this source in order to get a sense for how the soldiers of the 369th were received when they returned from their our in Europe.
The Institute of Heraldry
Gives information on the Croix de Guerre which was presented to the entire regiment.  Gives description of the medal's appearance and how it is acquired.
The Harlem World
I used this article because it tells the story of the Harlem Hellfighters from a point of view that is more focused on the band.
FirstWorldWar.com
I used this source because it also gives good background on the Croix de Guerre and more details on how it is awarded.
George Mason University's History News Network
I am using this source because it gives good stories on how the 369th faced racial tensions that were put on them by their brothers in arms.
369th Historical Society
I used this source because it gives good information on the major individuals of the 369th.

Picture
Newspaper Picture (New York Sun)
Gives an accurate picture of the men during their service.  Standing at attention.
For Love of Liberty
This is a picture of the Hellfighters on Armistice Day after they hear the news that the war is over.
The Harlem World
This is a picture of the Hellfighters marching in a parade going down 5 Ave. The parade was thrown in their honor and represents their reception after returning home.
Yale Library
This is a picture of the Hellfighters band as they were going around Europe playing shows for both service members and civilians of France.

Postcard Project Sources

http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq42-1.htm

The Eagle and the Kangaroo: The Great White Fleet's Visit to Australia

http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1907-07-28/ed-1/seq-5/;words=fleet+white+great?date1=1906&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=Great+White+Fleet&y=16&x=18&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=1

http://www.greatwhitefleet.info/Series_Cards.html

http://neohumanism.org/g/gr/great_white_fleet.html

Google Images - Great White Fleet Postcard Series

Here are my 6 sources for the Postcard Project

Postcard Project Update

So far I have found all six cover photos for my postcards. My sailor will have sent cards from San Francisco, New York, Wild Card, New Zealand, Tokyo, and Suez. And I have information for 2-3 of my stops. I still need to find my AVL and my primary source!

Skyscrapers and Elevators in the Gilded Age

In the late 19th and early 20th century America saw a rise in the creation of skyscrapers in big cities.  People began to build them because they were the best use of urban real estate which was at a premium during the time.  Skyscrapers were also safer and more structurally sound that the previous buildings which had been made of wood and masonry.  Skyscrapers would not have been as effective or possible without the invention of the elevator which made accessing the higher floors much easier and more desirable.  All-in-all skyscrapers and elevators changed the urban skyline and real estate forever.

The first skyscraper ever constructed was built in Chicago in the late 19th century.  The whole skyscraper movement was "sparked" by the Chicago fire which destroyed the majority of the buildings in downtown because of their wood construction.  Iron was fireproof which therefor made skyscrapers a logical answer to fireproofing.  The ability to make skyscrapers was a new thing because of advancements in steel making and fireproofing made the creating of skyscrapers structural and safe.  William Le Baron Jenney is considered the "Father of Skyscrapers" for being the architect of the first skyscraper in Chicago.  He created a steel-framed building that made the building lighter, cheaper, and stronger than the original masonry construction techniques.  One feature of the skyscraper was the "curtain walls".  Usually made of terracotta or marble, these walls were not load bearing or essential to the building.  These walls were only in place for the aesthetics of the building.  Another feature of the non Load bearing walls was that they could be thinner, allowing the inside to be less claustrophobic, and also allowed for the addition of windows which before had only been able to be very small windows that didn't allow for much light or views. This set the precedent for later construction of skyscrapers and the techniques that were involved in the process.

New York City followed closely behind Chicago in the creation of their first skyscraper.  The skyscraper was the Flatiron Building which was constructed in 1902 and still stands today.  The building was model after the style used to create the building in Chicago.  This style was called Chicago School and was the first real style in which to fashion a skyscraper and the intricate details that covered the aesthetic curtain wall.  The Flatiron Building in New York was arguably more advanced than the building in Chicago because of the size of the Flatiron Building compared to the Chicago skyscraper.  Jenney's building stood 10 stories tall at about 120 feet whereas the Flatiron Building in New York is 22 stories tall and an overall height of 285 feet.  Trumping Jenney's smaller building the Flatiron Building became the leader in construction and size of skyscrapers of the age.  Both of the buildings were used as office spaces that were non-residential but as the buildings get taller and the elevator comes into play companies will begin to only occupy the lower levels of the building and rent out the higher floors.

The Equitable Life Insurance Building in New York City was the first non commercial building to have a passenger elevator installed into the building.  The Equitable Life Insurance Company held a contest for architects to design their office building.  The only requirement in the contest was that the design of the building contain an elevator in the plans.  When the winner was chosen and the building was constructed the company realized that they could make better use and profit off of the top floors if they were to rent them to people to live in.  Now that the elevator was in place it wasn't a hassle to venture to the higher stories of the building and was actually more desirable.  The top floors were more desirable because the higher you got in a building the farther away you got from the noise and the dirt of the street below.  Making the top floor units more comfortable and peaceful.  Though the building was only 7 1/2 stories tall the elevator was the major improvement that made things easier.

The original elevator was one that was steam-powered and was mostly used in commercial and industrial settings.  The elevator was invented by Mr. Otis whose company still makes a majority of the elevators in today's society.  It was initially used in order to make carrying heavy things from one floor to the next less of a struggle, especially as factories and industrial plants began to grow upwards when the cost of urban plots was high.  The elevator was not used in the original skyscrapers because of its inefficiency.  The fact that the elevator was steam-powered required that there always be a person feeding a fire under the boiler that produced the steam.  And it was not until the creation of the first electric elevator that was practical and safe to put an elevator in a skyscraper.

The electric elevator was the only feasible way that an elevator could be installed in a commercial or residential skyscraper safely and effectively.  The first electric elevator was built and tested in Germany in 1880.  The creator of the electric elevator was Mr. Von Siemens whose company now makes elevators and medical equipment.  The elevator was not put in any American buildings at first because they had not come up with a practical way to control the start and stop points of the elevator.  They would not find a solution until the early 1890's when it would begin to be installed in some of the taller buildings that people began constructing.

The skyscraper and elevator were both two important creations that made the urban scene change dramatically.  The increase in urban real estate costs was solved by making the buildings go up instead of out.  And this was made practical by the invention of the elevator and the appeal it brought to being able to live on the higher levels of some of the new buildings.  Overall the skyscraper and elevator are arguably the two most important inventions of the Gilded Age in the way that they still effect modern life in urban areas.

Sites:

Univeristy of Houston: Elevator

History Study Center: Skyscraper

NYC: First Skyscraper

history of the skyscraper

Columbia Elevator

Faces of America

          Over the past few days in class we have been watching the series "Faces of America".  This show, hosted by Henry Louis Gates, helps prominent figures of American culture to find where their ancestors are from and when their family first came to America.  One of the major persons in the film is Kristi Yamaguchi.  She is the descendant of a Japanese family that came to America during the WWII era.  Her family faced the discrimination of the concentration camps in the West despite the fact that her father served in the American army as one of the few Japanese soldiers not in a purely Japanese company.  Her mother and father were both born in the concentration camps.  Though most of her Japanese culture, such as language, was lost over the years. Despite what was lost "Faces of America" was able to track her family lineage all the way back to a town in Japan.  Their they found her grandfather's cousin and they were able to learn a lot from him through pictures and information that had been passed down through him.  Overall, the show really depicted how America's major "faces", or people, aren't actually as American as many believe due to their history of immigration no more than 200 years ago.

          In my opinion, America being a nation of immigrants make it very unique in its background.  Due to the fact of having so many people coming in from all over the world makes America a nation of people who strive for better lives.  This attitude makes America even more of a nation of hard workers and people who are willing to make sacrifices in order to make their living conditions better and also to be to achieve their dreams.  Also people of other countries also come to the US as a place of refuge from the troubles and hardships of their maiden land.  This is a major sign of accomplishment for the Us.  This shows that people see the Us as a place of safety and a strong point in the world.  And the fact that the Us is a nation of immigrants means that these people who escape strife are trying to make the US a strong point in order to help deliver people that were in their situation to safety.  All these people of different cultural backgrounds makes America very unique in a sense of its culture.  This is due to all of these cultures mixing and blending with the others to create a culture that cannot be found anywhere else in the world.  I do not feel a very strong connection with my ancestry because of the time since my ancestors first arrived in America.  My family from both sides have been inn America for hundreds of years and over time the traditional culture has been lost.